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PHYSICAL EDUCATION & CULTURE

Athletics – Exercise – Strength – Boxing – Field Days – Essays

This volume of the Sports She Wrote series features 95 articles from dozens of source publications written by more than 65 women and focuses primarily on the role and purpose of physical education and exercise for women in American society.

At the end of the 19th century, generations of frail women, with their waists squeezed into tight corsets, movements restricted by layers of cumbersome fabrics, feet pinched by tiny pointy shoes, and hampered by the cultural desirability of feminine delicacy, were being replaced by a more active, robust, vigorous womanhood, broadly classed under the moniker of the “New Woman.”

Few disputed the need for stronger bodies and better health. But, like the modern usage of the term “feminist,” many used the term “New Woman” as an epithet to conflate athletic freedom with social reform that was not unanimously shared by all progressive women. Many otherwise-enlightened women remained opposed to female suffrage, were critical of dress reform, and considered many “New Women” mannish and unfeminine, as expressed in several of the articles in the Sports She Wrote series. The chronology of articles in this volume spans from the 1830s to 1899.

Two important conferences influenced the evolution of women’s participation in sports and physical education. The first was the Congress of the Association for the Advancement of Woman held in Chicago in 1874. This volume features excerpts from seven women attendees as reported in the Chicago Tribune.

The most defining moment in the history of physical education for men and women was a Physical Training Conference held in Boston in 1889. Physical education was a new profession and the conference featured explanations and demonstrations of several theories on the best methods of physical training. The conference, sponsored by Mary Hemenway, was attended by hundreds of educators, and included several prominent women presenters, five of whom are quoted in this volume, excerpted from the full report edited by Isabel C. Barrows.

Women engaged in standard calisthenics, stretching, Delsartean movements, German and Swedish gymnastics, and other common forms of exercise involving revolutionary exercise machines that would look familiar in modern fitness clubs. Among the controversial physical training methods adopted by women was boxing, not generally for competitive fighting but as sparring practice for health and stamina.

Three sets of articles are separated from the general chronology and are presented in their own sections. One is coverage of Vassar’s field days from 1895 to 1899. These were the first women’s college athletic festivals, encompassing track and field, basketball and other sporting events. While the articles do not include bylines, men were prohibited from attending these exhibitions and the reporters were presumably women. The reports include the times for running races of various lengths and records for the high jump and broad jump. Some of the names and records are inconsistent in rival newspapers. These athletic festivals are the direct result of advancements in physical education for young women.

The second separate category is comprised of eight articles written by women regarding the heavyweight championship prizefight held March 17, 1897, between James J. Corbett and Robert Fitzsimmons, in Carson City Nevada. The local newspaper was a mom-and-pop operation, and pop was covering politics in the state capital, which left mom to cover the fight. Her reports did not boast a byline but are widely known to have been written by Nellie Verrill Michels Davis, the first woman to cover a prizefight. This is confirmed by several sources including the newspaper itself. Her blow-by-blow description and related reports about the overall scene and interviews with the fighters, written in the first-person and referring to herself as “the Appeal reporter,” were sent to newspapers across the country who printed them as she sent them, without a byline. Nellie was 52 years old at the time and lived to be 100 years old (1844-1945).

Three articles about the fight are credited to the women who wrote them: Kate Swan described the expressions on fighters’ faces. Alice Rix wrote of watching the kinetoscope version of the fight with an audience, the first full-length boxing match ever filmed. Mrs. Robert Fitzsimmons, wife of the winner of the fight, Robert Fitzsimmons, penned an article announcing that she would permit her husband to defend his title after initially prohibiting it. Mrs. Fitzsimmons was a colorful character and one of the first wives to take a vocal role in her husband’s bouts.

The third set of articles is an exchange of three lengthy academic essays published in Nineteenth Century magazine in 1899 entitled “Woman As An Athlete,” which debated the effect of athletics on women of the period. The primary essay was in the April issue written by Dr. Arabella Kenealy; “A Reply” was published the following month by Mrs. L. Ormiston Chant; and in June Dr. Kenealy responded with “A Rejoinder.”

Dr. Kenealy was one of many women (and men) who wrote articles critical of the effect of women’s athletics and contributed to the pendulum swinging back against women’s participation in sports at the turn of the century, leading to decades of repression that did not relent until after the passage of Title IX more than 70 years later. These articles demonstrate how the public mind was conflicted and ultimately turned against women athletes.

Three volumes in the Sports She Wrote series focus on Physical Fitness and Exercise: (1) Physical Education & Culture, (2) Fitness, Grace, Health & Beauty, and (3) 7 Exercise Manuals. Additional material on the subject of physical culture is presented in the Sports She Wrote volumes: Diana’s Fitness, Fashion & Beauty and Adelia Brainerd: The Outdoor Woman of Harper’s Bazar.

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FITNESS, GRACE, HEALTH & BEAUTY

Poise – Posture – Working Out – Weight Loss – Strongwomen

The broad topic of women’s physical education encompasses calisthenic exercises, weight training, and overall muscular fitness. This volume of the Sports She Wrote series focuses on physical culture as it contributes to a woman’s poise, grace, posture, fitness, health, hygiene, beauty, and weight control.

In this volume, 102 articles written by more than 50 women, published in dozens of publications from 1882 to 1900, explore the evolution of exercise regimens, diets, fads, facilities, theories and personalities.

The emphasis on beauty is foremost in this volume. The effects of exercise on the esthetic shape of a woman’s body and the condition of her complexion are common themes in several articles. The authors include popular columnists who specialized in advice for retaining youth, eliminating wrinkles, maintaining posture, graceful walking, and losing weight.

Among the columnists are nine articles by “Mme. Hygeia” and six by Penelope Powelson in The San Francisco Call. The crosstown rival San Francisco Examiner provides six articles by Shirley Dare and four by dress reform advocate Annie Jenness Miller. Eight articles are written by Diana Crossways, whose articles appear in several volumes of the Sports She Wrote series, and were published in newspapers nationwide.

Other contributors include actresses Pauline Hall, who was noted for her slender figure, and Lillian Russell, who was forthright about her diet and exercise program that enabled her to lose thirty pounds in two months.

Building muscle was a core goal of exercise, although not to the extent exhibited in modern bodybuilding. There are two exceptions in this collection, both born in California: Charmion and Madame Yucca. Five articles are written by and about Laverie Vallee (1875-1949), known by her stage name “Charmion,” a famous trapeze artist and strongwoman. Charmion was the highest paid performer in vaudeville based on her act of disrobing on a trapeze, as immortalized on film by Thomas Edison in 1901. She entered the stage dressed in full Victorian costume and removed her clothes while performing feats on the trapeze. The striptease portion was the only risqué aspect, as when the act ended, she was still fully clad in a typical trapeze leotard. Charmion was considered one of the most beautiful and perfectly formed women in the world.

Pure strength and muscle mass were the hallmark of strongwoman Mary Anna Carson (1864-1917), known as “Madame Yucca.” She was also known as “The Female Sandow.” Eugen Sandow was the most famous male bodybuilder of the era and is cited in several articles when referring to women with muscle. Many articles about Charmion, Yucca and other strongwomen were published at the time but were not attributed to women writers and are not included in this collection.

Text in bold font in the body of the articles is intended for quick reference guides and potential points of interest for modern readers and was not printed in bold font in the original articles.

Three volumes in the Sports She Wrote series focus on Physical Fitness and Exercise: (1) Physical Education & Culture, (2) Fitness, Grace, Health & Beauty, and (3) 7 Exercise Manuals. Additional material on the subject of physical culture is presented in the Sports She Wrote volumes: Diana’s Fitness, Fashion & Beauty and Adelia Brainerd: The Outdoor Woman of Harper’s Bazar.

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7 EXERCISE MANUALS

By Women Pioneers of Physical Fitness

This volume assembles a collection of seven calisthenics manuals authored by women spanning from 1827 to 1900, offering a historical glimpse into the evolving landscape of women’s physical fitness during the 19th century. It is crucial to approach these exercises with an understanding that they are presented for historical reference and may not align with contemporary exercise methodologies.

The 19th century was a period of fervent debate on the optimal modes of exercise for women, a discourse that resonates with ongoing conversations in the present day. Despite the diversity in approaches, all these authors unanimously agreed on the indispensable role of exercise as a fundamental element of good health. This consensus, combined with proper diet, adequate rest, and consistency, underscored the holistic view of physical well-being.

The first work was written in 1827 by Englishwoman Marian Mason, who came from an athletic family and was a student of fitness advocate P. H. Clias. Trained to be an instructor in his studio, she led one of his classes specifically for women, featuring calisthenics set to music. She became a popular instructor and was the first woman to write a short fitness manual in England, On the Utility of Exercise.

Four years later, in 1831, a more detailed exercise manual was printed for an American audience, A Course of Calisthenics for Young Ladies, which included 62 illustrations. The author is simply known as “M.” but is identified as a woman and based on references within the book is most likely Marian Mason, although this is not verified. The book is written in the form of nine letters from “M.” and dedicated to “Mothers and Instructresses” for the benefit of their daughters. The drawings include posture, stretching, lifting weights, and a contraption called “the Oscillator,” which was an early example of an exercise machine with pulleys and weights.

The third book is Calisthenic Exercises for Schools, Families and Health Establishments, written by Catharine Beecher in 1856. Catharine (1800-1878) was a strong proponent of female education and a leader in the establishment of kindergartens for children. Her family was very influential in the 19th century. Her father was the religious leader Lyman Beecher, her brothers Henry Ward Beecher and Charles Beecher were renowned clergymen, and her sister was Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin. In 1823 Catharine and her sister Mary founded a female seminary in Hartford, Connecticut. Despite her progressive ideas, Catharine was not a suffragist and felt that women could best influence society as mothers and teachers rather than in politics.

Catharine’s biography and her impact on American education and society can be found in various online sources. Her role as an advocate for calisthenics was evident in the book excerpted in this volume, which includes 77 illustrations with women and men demonstrating the movements she describes.

The fourth book in this volume was also written by an icon, Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910), the first woman in America to receive a medical degree. Born in England, Elizabeth and her family emigrated to New York in 1832. Her book, The Laws of Life, With Special Reference to the Physical Education of Girls,” was originally published in 1852; the second edition published in 1859 is presented in this volume. Blackwell and her sister Emily founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1857. Her fame soared during the Civil War when she organized nurses to help wounded soldiers.

Her book contains no illustrations but describes the physical necessity of exercise and the framework for a program of physical education for girls. Her reputation lent considerable gravitas to the argument in favor of physical education during a period when many women were painted as frail fainting females, a common stereotype perpetuated by novels of the day.

The fifth book is Physical Culture, Beauty, Ideals, by Mrs. John Bailey in 1892. She did not intend her book as an in-depth treatise on physical training but rather for women who could spare fifteen minutes a day for “beautifying and bettering of self.” Her book is interspersed with quotations from Lord Byron, Lord Tennyson, Edwin Arnold, Thomas Kempis and other luminaries.

The sixth book, also published in 1892, contains excerpts from a comprehensive exercise plan, Psycho-Physical Culture, written by the Thomas sisters, Julia and Annie, who championed the concept that the mind and body are interconnected, and physical exercise can have a positive impact on mental health. This philosophy was adopted as an acting technique as well, most notably by method acting instructors Konstantin Stanislavski and Lee Strasberg. As an exercise manual, their book provides detailed daily routines. The portions excerpted in this volume are the overview and main exercises without the extensive and repetitive daily regimens. The book includes 41 illustrations of exercises and two full length portrait photographs of the authors.

The seventh book in this volume contains excerpts from the 1900 exercise manual School Gymnastics Free Hand, A System of Physical Exercises for Schools, by Jessie H. Bancroft. From 1893 to 1903 Jessie Hubbell Bancroft (1867-1952) was the Director of Physical Training in the Public Schools of Brooklyn, New York. She was a pioneer of physical education, founder of the American Posture League, dedicated to improving the posture of school children, and founder of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education. The excerpt presented in this volume is the general background and summation of her system of exercises, as well as 41 photographs of her exercises performed by girls and boys. The remainder of her book, like the Thomas sisters’ book, contains detailed and repetitive daily regimens for the exercises.

This anthology encapsulates the century’s literature on dedication to physical fitness written by women, offering a rich narrative that reflects the societal evolution of their roles, expectations, and the ongoing pursuit of health and empowerment. Each manual is a historical artifact, contributing to the broader narrative of women’s engagement with physical well-being in the 19th century.

Usage notes: As in most publications from the era, the author “M.” refers to “curtesy” and Catharine Beecher to “courtesy,” archaic variants for the woman’s bended knee and head bow which is now referred to as a “curtsy.” The portrait photographs of Beecher and Blackwell have been obtained from public domain online sources and were not contained in the original books. Page number references in the original books have been altered to match the pagination in this volume.

Additional volumes in the Sports She Wrote series containing primary documents regarding exercise and physical fitness are Physical Education & Culture (95 articles), and Fitness, Grace, Health & Beauty (102 articles). Exercise is also a common theme in the volumes Adelia Brainerd: The Outdoor Woman of Harper’s Bazar, and Diana’s Fitness, Fashion & Beauty.

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Home – About – Authors – Ball Sports – Columnists – Cycling – Equestrianism – Fashion – Outdoor Sports – Physical Fitness – Water & Ice – Contact